A book on Engineering Physical MetallurgyThis book should be of particular aid to new engineering person- nel, only recently engaged in industry, in coordinating their theo- retical knowledge with the actual engineering practice they en-counter and should also help them to better understand special treatises on physical metallurgy and heat treatment. More expe- rienced engineers may use it to renew their theoretical knowledge on the subject.The book may be expediently employed as supplementary read- ing by students of metallurgical and mechanical engineering in- stitutes and technical schools attending courses in general physical metallurgy.One aim of the author was to elucidate the latest developments made in engineering physical metallurgy, both in the Soviet Union and in other countries. Principal attention is given to the physical nature of the phenomena described.The author does not claim to have made a complete exposition of all the aspects of physical metallurgy. His intention was merely to set forth the fundamentals of physical metallurgy and heat treatment of steel, cast iron, and nonferrous metals in a consecutive and easily understandable manner. CONTENTSPreface  7 List of Symbols 9Chapter 1. Crystal Structure of Metals 11 1-1. Atomic Structure of Metals 11 1-2.Allotropy 18 1-3. Crystallographic Notation of Atomic Planes 19 1-4. The Structures of Actual: Metal Crystals 20 1-5. Properties of Metals 24Chapter 2. Solidification and Metal Ingot Structures 26 2-1. Solidification of Metals 26 2-2. Metal Ingot Structure 34Chapter 3. Plastic Deformation and Recrystallisalion in Metals 38 3-1. Plastic Deformation 38 3-2. Recovery and Recryslallisation 45Chapter 4. Methods for Studying Metal Structure 51 4-1. Macrostructure (Macrography)51 4-2. Microstructure (Micrography) 53 4-3. X-Ray Analysis 594-4. Physical Methods for Studying and Inspection or Metals and Alloys 64Chapter 5. The Mechanical Properties of Metals 73 5-1. Mechanical Testing of Metals 735-2. Tension Tests 73  5-3. Hardness Test 81  5-4. Impact Tests 865-5. Fatigue Tests 89 5-6. Tests a Elevated Temperatures 92 5-7. Fabrication Tests 94Chapter 6. Binary Alloys. Constitution and Equilibrium Diagram 966-1. General Principles or Phase Transformations in Alloys 96 6-2. The Phase Hule and Equilibrium Diagrams  99 6-3. Equilibrium Diagram of a Binary System in Which the Components Form a Mechanical Mixture of Crystals in the SolidState and Are Completely Mutually Soluble in the Liquid State 102 6-4. Equilibrium Diagram of a System Whose Components Are Mutually Soluble in Both the Liquid and Solid Slates 112 6-5. Equilibrium Diagram of a System in Which the Components Have Unlimited Solubility in the Liquid State and Form Chemical Compounds upon Solidification 1276-6. Equilibrium Diagram of a System Whose Components Are Subject to Allotropic Transformations 1326-7. Diagrams of Ternary Systems 134Chapter 7. The Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram 142 7-1. Iron 1427-2. The Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram 146Chapter 8. Phase Transformations in the Iron-Carbon System 158 8-1. Formation of Austenite (Transformations That Occur inHeating Steel) 158 8-2. Austenite Grain Growth in Heating 161 8-3. Transformation of Austenite into Pearlite (Isothermal Decomposition of Austenite) 1698-4. Transformation of Austenite upon Continuous Cooling 1788-5. Martensitic Transformation in Steel 1838-6. Tempering of Steel 1878-7. Ageing 192Chapter 9. Heat Treatment of Steel 194 9-1. Annealing of Steel 1959-2. Normalising of Steel 2029-3. Hardening of Steel 2049-4. Tempering of Steel 2269-5. Sub-Zero Treatment of Steel 2329-6. Defects Due to Heat Treatment of Steels 232Chapter 10. Surface Hardening of Steel 23910-1. High-Frequency Induction Hardening 23910-2. Hardening with Electric Contact Resistance Heating 24810-3. Hardening with Electrolytic Heating 24910-4. Oxyacetylene Flame Hardening 250Chapter 11. Chemical Heat Treatment of Steel (Case-Hardening) 11-1. Physical Principles Involved in Chemical Heat Treatment 27311-2. Carburising of Steel 11-3. Nitriding of Steel 11-4. Cyaniding and Carbonitriding of Steel  282 11-5. Di!Tusion Coatings 287Chapter 12. Minor Constituents and Alloying Elements in Steel 295 12-1. Effects Produced by the Minor Constituents  295 12-2. Distribution of Alloying Elements in Steel 297 12-3. Effects of the Alloying Elements on Phase Transformations in Steel 30712-4. Structural Classes of Alloy Steels 320Chapter 13. Steel 32413-1. General Classification 32413-2. Ordinary and Improved Carbon Structural Steels 32613-3. Quality Carbon Structural Steels 32913-4. Carbon Steels for Castings 33313-5. Free Cutting Steels 33413-6. Low-Alloy Constructional Steels 33513-7. Alloy Structural Steels 33713-8. Tool Steels 35313-9. Wear-Resistant (Austenitic) Steels 36713-10. Stainless and Acid-Resistant Steels 36713-11. Scale-Resistant and Heat-Resistant Steels and Alloys 37213-12. Magnetic Steels and Alloys 38313-13. Alloys with Definite Expansion and Elasticity Properties 389Chapter 14. Cast Iron and its Heat Treatment 39114-1.Grey Cast Iron 39114-2. Heat Treatment of Cast Iron 40114-3. Malleable Cast Iron 403Chapter 15. Copper and Its Alloys 40615-1. Copper 40615-2. Brasses 409 15-3. Bronzes 413Chapter 16. Nickel and Its Alloys 423Chapter 17. Aluminium and lis Alloys 42517-1. Aluminium 42517-2. Classification of Aluminium Alloys 427 17-3. Non-Heat-Treatable Wrought Aluminium Alloys 428 17-4. Heat-Treatable Wrought Aluminium Alloys 429 17-5. Aluminium-Base Casting Alloys 437Chapter 18. Magnesium and its Alloys 442 18-1. Magnesium 442 18-2. Magnesium Alloys 442Chapter 19. Titanium and Its Alloys 446Chapter 20. Zinc, Lead, Tin and Their Alloys 450 20-1. Zinc and Its Alloys 450 20-2. Lead and Its Alloys 451 20-3. Tin and Its Alloys 452Chapter 21. Babbitts (Antifriction Alloys) 454Chapter 22. Rare Metals and Their Alloys 458References 463 Index 468